Cooking with liquefied petroleum gas or biomass and fetal growth outcomes: a multi-country randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Household air pollution might lead to fetal growth restriction during pregnancy. We aimed to investigate whether a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) intervention to reduce personal exposures to household air pollution during pregnancy would alter fetal growth. METHODS: The Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial was an open-label randomised controlled trial conducted in ten resource-limited settings across Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda. Pregnant women aged 18-34 years (9-19 weeks of gestation) were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to receive an LPG stove, continuous fuel delivery, and behavioural messaging or to continue usual cooking with biomass for 18 months. We conducted ultrasound assessments at baseline, 24-28 weeks of gestation (the first pregnancy visit), and 32-36 weeks of gestation (the second pregnancy visit), to measure fetal size; we monitored 24 h personal exposures to household air pollutants during these visits; and we weighed children at birth. We conducted intention-to-treat analyses to estimate differences in fetal size between the intervention and control group, and exposure-response analyses to identify associations between household air pollutants and fetal size. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02944682). FINDINGS: Between May 7, 2018, and Feb 29, 2020, we randomly assigned 3200 pregnant women (1593 to the intervention group and 1607 to the control group). The mean gestational age was 14·5 (SD 3·0) weeks and mean maternal age was 25·6 (4·5) years. We obtained ultrasound assessments in 3147 (98·3%) women at baseline, 3052 (95·4%) women at the first pregnancy visit, and 2962 (92·6%) at the second pregnancy visit, through to Aug 25, 2020. Intervention adherence was high (the median proportion of days with biomass stove use was 0·0%, IQR 0·0-1·6) and pregnant women in the intervention group had lower mean exposures to particulate matter with a diameter less than 2·5 µm (PM2·5; 35·0 [SD 37·2] µg/m3vs 103·3 [97·9] µg/m3) than did women in the control group. We did not find differences in averaged post-randomisation Z scores for head circumference (0·30 vs 0·39; p=0·04), abdominal circumference (0·38 vs 0·39; p=0·99), femur length (0·44 vs 0·45; p=0·73), and estimated fetal weight or birthweight (-0·13 vs -0·12; p=0·70) between the intervention and control groups. Personal exposures to household air pollutants were not associated with fetal size. INTERPRETATION: Although an LPG cooking intervention successfully reduced personal exposure to air pollution during pregnancy, it did not affect fetal size. Our findings do not support the use of unvented liquefied petroleum gas stoves as a strategy to increase fetal growth in settings were biomass fuels are used predominantly for cooking. FUNDING: US National Institutes of Health and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. TRANSLATIONS: For the Kinyarwanda, Spanish and Tamil translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Effects of a liquefied petroleum gas stove intervention on stillbirth, congenital anomalies and neonatal mortality: A multi-country household air pollution intervention network trial.

Household air pollution (HAP) from cooking with solid fuels used during pregnancy has been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. The Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial was a randomized controlled trial that assessed the impact of a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stove and fuel intervention on health in Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda. Here we investigated the effects of the LPG stove and fuel intervention on stillbirth, congenital anomalies and neonatal mortality and characterized exposure-response relationships between personal exposures to fine particulate matter (PM2.5), black carbon (BC) and carbon monoxide (CO) and these outcomes. Pregnant women (18 to <35 years of age; gestation confirmed by ultrasound at 9 to <20 weeks) were randomly assigned to intervention or control arms. We monitored these fetal and neonatal outcomes and personal exposure to PM2.5, BC and CO three times during pregnancy, we conducted intention-to-treat (ITT) and exposure-response (E-R) analyses to determine if the HAPIN intervention and corresponding HAP exposure was associated with the risk of fetal/neonatal outcomes. A total of 3200 women (mean age 25.4 ± 4.4 years, mean gestational age at randomization 15.4 ± 3.1 weeks) were included in this analysis. Relative risks for stillbirth, congenital anomaly and neonatal mortality were 0.99 (0.60, 1.66), 0.92 (95 % CI 0.52, 1.61), and 0.99 (0.54, 1.85), respectively, among women in the intervention arm compared to controls in an ITT analysis. Higher mean personal exposures to PM2.5, CO and BC during pregnancy were associated with a higher, but statistically non-significant, incidence of adverse outcomes. The LPG stove and fuel intervention did not reduce the risk of these outcomes nor did we find evidence supporting an association between personal exposures to HAP and stillbirth, congenital anomalies and neonatal mortality.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas or Biomass Cooking and Severe Infant Pneumonia.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to household air pollution is a risk factor for severe pneumonia. The effect of replacing biomass cookstoves with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cookstoves on the incidence of severe infant pneumonia is uncertain. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, controlled trial involving pregnant women 18 to 34 years of age and between 9 to less than 20 weeks' gestation in India, Guatemala, Peru, and Rwanda from May 2018 through September 2021. The women were assigned to cook with unvented LPG stoves and fuel (intervention group) or to continue cooking with biomass fuel (control group). In each trial group, we monitored adherence to the use of the assigned cookstove and measured 24-hour personal exposure to fine particulate matter (particles with an aerodynamic diameter of ≤2.5 µm [PM2.5]) in the women and their offspring. The trial had four primary outcomes; the primary outcome for which data are presented in the current report was severe pneumonia in the first year of life, as identified through facility surveillance or on verbal autopsy. RESULTS: Among 3200 pregnant women who had undergone randomization, 3195 remained eligible and gave birth to 3061 infants (1536 in the intervention group and 1525 in the control group). High uptake of the intervention led to a reduction in personal exposure to PM2.5 among the children, with a median exposure of 24.2 µg per cubic meter (interquartile range, 17.8 to 36.4) in the intervention group and 66.0 µg per cubic meter (interquartile range, 35.2 to 132.0) in the control group. A total of 175 episodes of severe pneumonia were identified during the first year of life, with an incidence of 5.67 cases per 100 child-years (95% confidence interval [CI], 4.55 to 7.07) in the intervention group and 6.06 cases per 100 child-years (95% CI, 4.81 to 7.62) in the control group (incidence rate ratio, 0.96; 98.75% CI, 0.64 to 1.44; P = 0.81). No severe adverse events were reported to be associated with the intervention, as determined by the trial investigators. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of severe pneumonia among infants did not differ significantly between those whose mothers were assigned to cook with LPG stoves and fuel and those whose mothers were assigned to continue cooking with biomass stoves. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; HAPIN ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02944682.).

Effects of Cooking with Liquefied Petroleum Gas or Biomass on Stunting in Infants.

BACKGROUND: Household air pollution is associated with stunted growth in infants. Whether the replacement of biomass fuel (e.g., wood, dung, or agricultural crop waste) with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for cooking can reduce the risk of stunting is unknown. METHODS: We conducted a randomized trial involving 3200 pregnant women 18 to 34 years of age in four low- and middle-income countries. Women at 9 to less than 20 weeks' gestation were randomly assigned to use a free LPG cookstove with continuous free fuel delivery for 18 months (intervention group) or to continue using a biomass cookstove (control group). The length of each infant was measured at 12 months of age, and personal exposures to fine particulate matter (particles with an aerodynamic diameter of ≤2.5 µm) were monitored starting at pregnancy and continuing until the infants were 1 year of age. The primary outcome for which data are presented in the current report - stunting (defined as a length-for-age z score that was more than two standard deviations below the median of a growth standard) at 12 months of age - was one of four primary outcomes of the trial. Intention-to-treat analyses were performed to estimate the relative risk of stunting. RESULTS: Adherence to the intervention was high, and the intervention resulted in lower prenatal and postnatal 24-hour personal exposures to fine particulate matter than the control (mean prenatal exposure, 35.0 µg per cubic meter vs. 103.3 µg per cubic meter; mean postnatal exposure, 37.9 µg per cubic meter vs. 109.2 µg per cubic meter). Among 3061 live births, 1171 (76.2%) of the 1536 infants born to women in the intervention group and 1186 (77.8%) of the 1525 infants born to women in the control group had a valid length measurement at 12 months of age. Stunting occurred in 321 of the 1171 infants included in the analysis (27.4%) of the infants born to women in the intervention group and in 299 of the 1186 infants included in the analysis (25.2%) of those born to women in the control group (relative risk, 1.10; 98.75% confidence interval, 0.94 to 1.29; P = 0.12). CONCLUSIONS: An intervention strategy starting in pregnancy and aimed at mitigating household air pollution by replacing biomass fuel with LPG for cooking did not reduce the risk of stunting in infants. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; HAPIN ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02944682.).

Fidelity and adherence to a liquefied petroleum gas stove and fuel intervention: The multi-country Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial.

BACKGROUND: Reducing household air pollution (HAP) to levels associated with health benefits requires nearly exclusive use of clean cooking fuels and abandonment of traditional biomass fuels. METHODS: The Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial randomized 3,195 pregnant women in Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda to receive a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stove intervention (n = 1,590), with controls expected to continue cooking with biomass fuels (n = 1,605). We assessed fidelity to intervention implementation and participant adherence to the intervention starting in pregnancy through the infant's first birthday using fuel delivery and repair records, surveys, observations, and temperature-logging stove use monitors (SUMs). RESULTS: Fidelity and adherence to the HAPIN intervention were high. Median time required to refill LPG cylinders was 1 day (interquartile range 0-2). Although 26% (n = 410) of intervention participants reported running out of LPG at some point, the number of times was low (median: 1 day [Q1, Q3: 1, 2]) and mostly limited to the first four months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Most repairs were completed on the same day as problems were reported. Traditional stove use was observed in only 3% of observation visits, and 89% of these observations were followed up with behavioral reinforcement. According to SUMs data, intervention households used their traditional stove a median of 0.4% of all monitored days, and 81% used the traditional stove < 1 day per month. Traditional stove use was slightly higher post-COVID-19 (detected on a median [Q1, Q3] of 0.0% [0.0%, 3.4%] of days) than pre-COVID-19 (0.0% [0.0%, 1.6%] of days). There was no significant difference in intervention adherence pre- and post-birth. CONCLUSION: Free stoves and an unlimited supply of LPG fuel delivered to participating homes combined with timely repairs, behavioral messaging, and comprehensive stove use monitoring contributed to high intervention fidelity and near-exclusive LPG use within the HAPIN trial.

Fidelity and adherence to a liquefied petroleum gas stove and fuel intervention: the multi-country Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial.

Background: Reducing household air pollution (HAP) to levels associated with health benefits requires nearly exclusive use of clean cooking fuels and abandonment of traditional biomass fuels. Methods: The Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial randomized 3,195 pregnant women in Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda to receive a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stove intervention (n=1,590), with controls expected to continue cooking with biomass fuels (n=1,605). We assessed fidelity to intervention implementation and participant adherence to the intervention starting in pregnancy through the infant's first birthday using fuel delivery and repair records, surveys, observations, and temperature-logging stove use monitors (SUMs). Results: Fidelity and adherence to the HAPIN intervention were high. Median time required to refill LPG cylinders was 1 day (interquartile range 0-2). Although 26% (n=410) of intervention participants reported running out of LPG at some point, the number of times was low (median: 1 day [Q1, Q3: 1, 2]) and mostly limited to the first four months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Most repairs were completed on the same day as problems were reported. Traditional stove use was observed in only 3% of observation visits, and 89% of these observations were followed up with behavioral reinforcement. According to SUMs data, intervention households used their traditional stove a median of 0.4% of all monitored days, and 81% used the traditional stove <1 day per month. Traditional stove use was slightly higher post-COVID-19 (detected on a median [Q1, Q3] of 0.0% [0.0%, 3.4%] of days) than pre-COVID-19 (0.0% [0.0%, 1.6%] of days). There was no significant difference in intervention adherence pre- and post-birth. Conclusion: Free stoves and an unlimited supply of LPG fuel delivered to participating homes combined with timely repairs, behavioral messaging, and comprehensive stove use monitoring contributed to high intervention fidelity and near-exclusive LPG use within the HAPIN trial.

Post-birth exposure contrasts for children during the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network randomized controlled trial.

Exposure to household air pollution is a leading cause of ill-health globally. The Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) randomized controlled trial evaluated the impact of a free liquefied petroleum gas stove and fuel intervention on birth outcomes and maternal and child health. As part of HAPIN, an extensive exposure assessment was conducted. Here, we report on PM 2.5 and CO exposures of young children (≤ 15 months old) reconstructed using a Bluetooth-beacon based time-activity monitoring system coupled with microenvironmental pollutant monitors. Median (IQR) exposures to PM 2.5 were 65.1 (33 - 128.2) µg/m 3 in the control group and 22.9 (17.2 - 35.3) µg/m3 in the intervention group; for CO, median (IQR) exposures were 1.1 (0.3 - 2.9) ppm and 0.2 (0 - 0.7) ppm for control and intervention group, respectively. Exposure reductions were stable over time and consistent with previous findings for the children's mothers. In the intervention group, 75% of children's reconstructed exposures were below the WHO interim target guideline value of 35 µg/m 3 , while 26% were below the standard in the control group. Our findings suggest that an LPG fuel and stove intervention can substantially reduce children's exposure to household air pollution.

Effects of a LPG stove and fuel intervention on adverse maternal outcomes: A multi-country randomized controlled trial conducted by the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN).

Household air pollution from solid cooking fuel use during gestation has been associated with adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes. The Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial was a randomized controlled trial of free liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stoves and fuel in Guatemala, Peru, India, and Rwanda. A primary outcome of the main trial was to report the effects of the intervention on infant birth weight. Here we evaluate the effects of a LPG stove and fuel intervention during pregnancy on spontaneous abortion, postpartum hemorrhage, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, and maternal mortality compared to women who continued to use solid cooking fuels. Pregnant women (18-34 years of age; gestation confirmed by ultrasound at 9-19 weeks) were randomly assigned to an intervention (n = 1593) or control (n = 1607) arm. Intention-to-treat analyses compared outcomes between the two arms using log-binomial models. Among the 3195 pregnant women in the study, there were 10 spontaneous abortions (7 intervention, 3 control), 93 hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (47 intervention, 46 control), 11 post postpartum hemorrhage (5 intervention, 6 control) and 4 maternal deaths (3 intervention, 1 control). Compared to the control arm, the relative risk of spontaneous abortion among women randomized to the intervention was 2.32 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.60, 8.96), hypertensive disorders of pregnancy 1.02 (95% CI: 0.68, 1.52), postpartum hemorrhage 0.83 (95% CI: 0.25, 2.71) and 2.98 (95% CI: 0.31, 28.66) for maternal mortality. In this study, we found that adverse maternal outcomes did not differ based on randomized stove type across four country research sites.

Exposure-response relationships for personal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2·5), carbon monoxide, and black carbon and birthweight: an observational analysis of the multicountry Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial.

BACKGROUND: Household air pollution (HAP) from solid fuel use is associated with adverse birth outcomes, but data for exposure-response relationships are scarce. We examined associations between HAP exposures and birthweight in rural Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda during the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial. METHODS: The HAPIN trial recruited pregnant women (9-<20 weeks of gestation) in rural Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda and randomly allocated them to receive a liquefied petroleum gas stove or not (ie, and continue to use biomass fuel). The primary outcomes were birthweight, length-for-age, severe pneumonia, and maternal systolic blood pressure. In this exposure-response subanalysis, we measured 24-h personal exposures to PM2·5, carbon monoxide, and black carbon once pre-intervention (baseline) and twice post-intervention (at 24-28 weeks and 32-36 weeks of gestation), as well as birthweight within 24 h of birth. We examined the relationship between the average prenatal exposure and birthweight or weight-for-gestational age Z scores using multivariate-regression models, controlling for the mother's age, nulliparity, diet diversity, food insecurity, BMI, the mother's education, neonate sex, haemoglobin, second-hand smoke, and geographical indicator for randomisation strata. FINDINGS: Between March, 2018, and February, 2020, 3200 pregnant women were recruited. An interquartile increase in the average prenatal exposure to PM2·5 (74·5 µg/m3) was associated with a reduction in birthweight and gestational age Z scores (birthweight: -14·8 g [95% CI -28·7 to -0·8]; gestational age Z scores: -0·03 [-0·06 to 0·00]), as was an interquartile increase in black carbon (7·3 µg/m3; -21·9 g [-37·7 to -6·1]; -0·05 [-0·08 to -0·01]). Carbon monoxide exposure was not associated with these outcomes (1·7; -3·1 [-12·1 to 5·8]; -0·003 [-0·023 to 0·017]). INTERPRETATION: Continuing efforts are needed to reduce HAP exposure alongside other drivers of low birthweight in low-income and middle-income countries. FUNDING: US National Institutes of Health (1UM1HL134590) and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1131279).

Lung Ultrasound Protocol and Quality Control of Image Interpretation Using an Adjudication Panel in the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) Trial.

OBJECTIVE: Lung ultrasound (LUS) is an alternative to chest radiography to confirm a diagnosis of pneumonia. For research and disease surveillance, methods to use LUS to diagnose pneumonia are needed. METHODS: In the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial, LUS was used to confirm a clinical diagnosis of severe pneumonia in infants. We developed a standardized definition of pneumonia, protocols for recruitment and training of sonographers, along with LUS image acquisition and interpretation. We use a blinded panel approach to interpretation with LUS cine-loops randomized to non-scanning sonographers with expert review. DISCUSSION: We obtained 357 lung ultrasound scans: 159, 8 and 190 scans were collected in Guatemala, Peru and Rwanda, respectively. The diagnosis of primary endpoint pneumonia (PEP) required an expert tie breaker in 181 scans (39%). PEP was diagnosed in 141 scans (40%), not diagnosed in 213 (60%), with 3 scans (<1%) deemed uninterpretable. Agreement among the two blinded sonographers and the expert reader in Guatemala, Peru and Rwanda was 65%, 62% and 67%, with a prevalence-and-bias-corrected kappa of 0.30, 0.24 and 0.33, respectively. CONCLUSION: Use of standardized imaging protocols, training and an adjudication panel resulted in high confidence for the diagnosis of pneumonia using LUS.

Baseline associations between household air pollution exposure and blood pressure among pregnant women in the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) multi-country randomized controlled trial.

Cooking and heating using solid fuels can result in dangerous levels of exposure to household air pollution (HAP). HAPIN is an ongoing randomized controlled trial assessing the impact of a liquified petroleum gas stove and fuel intervention on HAP exposure and health in Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda among households that rely primarily on solid cooking fuels. Given the potential impacts of HAP exposure on cardiovascular outcomes during pregnancy, we seek to characterize the relationship between personal exposures to HAP and blood pressure among pregnant women at baseline (prior to intervention) in the study. We assessed associations between PM2.5 (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 µm), BC (black carbon), and CO (carbon monoxide) exposures and blood pressure at baseline, prior to intervention, among 3195 pregnant women between 9 and 19 weeks of gestation. We measured 24-hour personal exposure to PM2.5/BC/CO and gestational blood pressure. Multivariable linear regression models were used to evaluate associations between personal exposures to three air pollutants and blood pressure parameters. Trial-wide, we found moderate increases in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and decreases in diastolic blood pressure (DBP) as exposure to PM2.5, BC, and CO increased. None of these associations, however, were significant at the 0.05 level. HAP exposure and blood pressure associations were inconsistent in direction and magnitude within each country. We observed effect modification by body mass index (BMI) in India and Peru. Compared to women with normal weights, obese women in India and Peru (but not in Rwanda or Guatemala) had higher SBP per unit increase in log transformed PM2.5 and BC exposures. We did not find a cross-sectional association between HAP exposure and blood pressure in pregnant women; however, HAP may be associated with higher blood pressure in pregnant women who are obese, but this increase was not consistent across settings.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas or Biomass for Cooking and Effects on Birth Weight.

BACKGROUND: Exposure during pregnancy to household air pollution caused by the burning of solid biomass fuel is associated with adverse health outcomes, including low birth weight. Whether the replacement of a biomass cookstove with a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cookstove would result in an increase in birth weight is unclear. METHODS: We performed a randomized, controlled trial involving pregnant women (18 to <35 years of age and at 9 to <20 weeks' gestation as confirmed on ultrasonography) in Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda. The women were assigned in a 1:1 ratio to use a free LPG cookstove and fuel (intervention group) or to continue using a biomass cookstove (control group). Birth weight, one of four prespecified primary outcomes, was the primary outcome for this report; data for the other three outcomes are not yet available. Birth weight was measured within 24 hours after birth. In addition, 24-hour personal exposures to fine particulate matter (particles with a diameter of ≤2.5 µm [PM2.5]), black carbon, and carbon monoxide were measured at baseline and twice during pregnancy. RESULTS: A total of 3200 women underwent randomization; 1593 were assigned to the intervention group, and 1607 to the control group. Uptake of the intervention was nearly complete, with traditional biomass cookstoves being used at a median rate of less than 1 day per month. After randomization, the median 24-hour personal exposure to fine particulate matter was 23.9 µg per cubic meter in the intervention group and 70.7 µg per cubic meter in the control group. Among 3061 live births, a valid birth weight was available for 94.9% of the infants born to women in the intervention group and for 92.7% of infants born to those in the control group. The mean (±SD) birth weight was 2921±474.3 g in the intervention group and 2898±467.9 g in the control group, for an adjusted mean difference of 19.6 g (95% confidence interval, -10.1 to 49.2). CONCLUSIONS: The birth weight of infants did not differ significantly between those born to women who used LPG cookstoves and those born to women who used biomass cookstoves. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; HAPIN ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02944682.).

Exposure Contrasts of Pregnant Women during the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to PM2.5 arising from solid fuel combustion is estimated to result in ∼2.3 million premature deaths and 91 million lost disability-adjusted life years annually. Interventions attempting to mitigate this burden have had limited success in reducing exposures to levels thought to provide substantive health benefits. OBJECTIVES: This paper reports exposure reductions achieved by a liquified petroleum gas (LPG) stove and fuel intervention for pregnant mothers in the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) randomized controlled trial. METHODS: The HAPIN trial included 3,195 households primarily using biomass for cooking in Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda. Twenty-four-hour exposures to PM2.5, carbon monoxide (CO), and black carbon (BC) were measured for pregnant women once before randomization into control (n=1,605) and LPG (n=1,590) arms and twice thereafter (aligned with trimester). Changes in exposure were estimated by directly comparing exposures between intervention and control arms and by using linear mixed-effect models to estimate the impact of the intervention on exposure levels. RESULTS: Median postrandomization exposures of particulate matter (PM) with aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5µm (PM2.5) in the intervention arm were lower by 66% at the first (71.5 vs. 24.1 µg/m3), and second follow-up visits (69.5 vs. 23.7 µg/m3) compared to controls. BC exposures were lower in the intervention arm by 72% (9.7 vs. 2.7 µg/m3) and 70% (9.6 vs. 2.8 µg/m3) at the first and second follow-up visits, respectively, and carbon monoxide exposure was 82% lower at both visits (1.1 vs. 0.2 ppm) in comparison with controls. Exposure reductions were consistent over time and were similar across research locations. DISCUSSION: Postintervention PM2.5 exposures in the intervention arm were at the lower end of what has been reported for LPG and other clean fuel interventions, with 69% of PM2.5 samples falling below the World Health Organization Annual Interim Target 1 of 35 µg/m3. This study indicates that an LPG intervention can reduce PM2.5 exposures to levels at or below WHO targets. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10295.

Cross-sectional analysis of the association between personal exposure to household air pollution and blood pressure in adult women: Evidence from the multi-country Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial.

Elevated blood pressure (BP) is a leading risk factor for the global burden of disease. Household air pollution (HAP), resulting from the burning of biomass fuels, may be an important cause of elevated BP in resource-poor communities. We examined the exposure-response relationship of personal exposures to HAP -fine particulate matter (PM2.5), carbon monoxide (CO), and black carbon (BC) - with BP measures in women aged 40-79 years across four resource-poor settings in Guatemala, Peru, India and Rwanda. BP was obtained within a day of 24-h personal exposure measurements at baseline, when participants were using biomass for cooking. We used generalized additive models to characterize the shape of the association between BP and HAP, accounting for the interaction of personal exposures and age and adjusting for a priori identified confounders. A total of 418 women (mean age 52.2 ± 7.9 years) were included in this analysis. The interquartile range of exposures to PM2.5 was 42.9-139.5 µg/m3, BC was 6.4-16.1 µg/m3, and CO was 0.5-2.9 ppm. Both SBP and PP were positively associated with PM2.5 exposure in older aged women, achieving statistical significance around 60 years of age. The exact threshold varied by BP measure and PM2.5 exposures being compared. For example, SBP of women aged 65 years was on average 10.8 mm Hg (95% CI 1.0-20.6) higher at 232 µg/m3 of PM2.5 exposure (90th percentile) when compared to that of women of the same age with personal exposures of 10 µg/m3. PP in women aged 65 years was higher for exposures ≥90 µg/m3, with mean differences of 6.1 mm Hg (95% CI 1.8-10.5) and 9.2 mm Hg (95% CI 3.3-15.1) at 139 (75th percentile) and 232 µg/m3 (90th percentile) respectively, when compared to that of women of the same age with PM2.5 exposures of 10 µg/m3. Our findings suggest that reducing HAP exposures may help to reduce BP, particularly among older women.

Effects of a Liquefied Petroleum Gas Stove Intervention on Gestational Blood Pressure: Intention-to-Treat and Exposure-Response Findings From the HAPIN Trial.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 3 to 4 billion people worldwide are exposed to household air pollution, which has been associated with increased blood pressure (BP) in pregnant women in some studies. METHODS: We recruited 3195 pregnant women in Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda and randomly assigned them to intervention or control groups. The intervention group received a gas stove and fuel during pregnancy, while the controls continued cooking with solid fuels. We measured BP and personal exposure to PM2.5, black carbon and carbon monoxide 3× during gestation. We conducted an intention-to-treat and exposure-response analysis to determine if household air pollution exposure was associated with increased gestational BP. RESULTS: Median 24-hour PM2.5 dropped from 84 to 24 µg/m3 after the intervention; black carbon and carbon monoxide decreased similarly. Intention-to-treat analyses showed an increase in systolic BP and diastolic BP in both arms during gestation, as expected, but the increase was greater in intervention group for both systolic BP (0.69 mm Hg [0.03-1.35]; P=0.04) and diastolic BP (0.62 mm Hg [0.05-1.19]; P=0.03). The exposure-response analyses suggested that higher exposures to household air pollution were associated with moderately higher systolic BP and diastolic BP; however, none of these associations reached conventional statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: In intention-to-treat, we found higher gestational BP in the intervention group compared with controls, contrary to expected. In exposure-response analyses, we found a slight increase in BP with higher exposure, but it was not statistically significant. Overall, an intervention with gas stoves did not markedly affect gestational BP.

Facing the Realities of Pragmatic Design Choices in Environmental Health Studies: Experiences from the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network Trial.

Objective: Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) investigators tested a complex, non-pharmacological intervention in four low- and middle-income countries as a strategy to mitigate household air pollution and improve health outcomes across the lifespan. Intervention households received a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stove, continuous fuel delivery and regular behavioral reinforcements for 18 months, whereas controls were asked to continue with usual cooking practices. While HAPIN was designed as an explanatory trial to test the efficacy of the intervention on four primary outcomes, it introduced several pragmatic aspects in its design and conduct that resemble real-life conditions. We surveyed HAPIN investigators and asked them to rank what aspects of the design and conduct they considered were more pragmatic than explanatory. Methods: We used the revised Pragmatic Explanatory Continuum Indicator Summary (PRECIS-2) to survey investigators on the degree of pragmatism in nine domains of trial design and conduct using a five-point Likert rank scale from very explanatory (1) to very pragmatic (5). We invited 103 investigators. Participants were given educational material on PRECIS-2, including presentations, papers and examples that described the use and implementation of PRECIS-2. Results: Thirty-five investigators (mean age 42 years, 51% female) participated in the survey. Overall, only 17% ranked all domains as very explanatory, with an average (±SD) rank of 3.2 ± 1.4 across domains. Fewer than 20% of investigators ranked eligibility, recruitment or setting as very explanatory. In contrast, ≥50% of investigators ranked the trial organization, delivery and adherence of the intervention and follow-up as very/rather explanatory whereas ≤17% ranked them as rather/very pragmatic. Finally, <25% of investigators ranked the relevance of outcomes to participants and analysis as very/rather explanatory whereas ≥50% ranked then as rather/very pragmatic. In-country partners were more likely to rank domains as pragmatic when compared to investigators working in central coordination (average rank 3.2 vs. 2.8, respectively; Wilcoxon rank-sum p < 0.001). Conclusion: HAPIN investigators did not consider their efficacy trial to be rather/very explanatory and reported that some aspects of the design and conduct were executed under real-world conditions; however, they also did not consider the trial to be overly pragmatic. Our analysis underscores the importance of using standardized tools such as PRECIS-2 to guide early discussions among investigators in the design of environmental health trials attempting to measure efficacy.

Visualizing Field Data Collection Procedures of Exposure and Biomarker Assessments for the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network Trial in India.

Here, we present a visual representation of standard procedures to collect population-level data on personal exposures to household air pollution (HAP) from two different study sites in a resource-constrained setting of Tamil Nadu, India. Particulate matter PM2.5 (particles smaller than 2.5 microns in aerodynamic diameter), carbon monoxide (CO), and black carbon (BC) were measured in pregnant mothers (M), other adult women (OAW), and children (C) at various times over a 4 year period. In addition, stove usage monitoring (SUMs) with data-logging thermometers and ambient measurements of air pollution were carried out. Furthermore, the feasibility of collecting biological samples (urine and dried blood spots [DBSs]) from study participants at the field sites was successfully demonstrated. Based on findings from this and earlier studies, the methods used here have enhanced the data quality and avoided issues with household air pollution and biological sample collection in resource-constrained situations. The procedures established may be a valuable educational tool and resource for researchers conducting similar air pollution and health studies in India and other low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Resources and Geographic Access to Care for Severe Pediatric Pneumonia in Four Resource-limited Settings.

Rationale: Pneumonia is the leading cause of death in children worldwide. Identifying and appropriately managing severe pneumonia in a timely manner improves outcomes. Little is known about the readiness of healthcare facilities to manage severe pediatric pneumonia in low-resource settings. Objectives: As part of the HAPIN (Household Air Pollution Intervention Network) trial, we sought to identify healthcare facilities that were adequately resourced to manage severe pediatric pneumonia in Jalapa, Guatemala (J-GUA); Puno, Peru (P-PER); Kayonza, Rwanda (K-RWA); and Tamil Nadu, India (T-IND). We conducted a facility-based survey of available infrastructure, staff, equipment, and medical consumables. Facilities were georeferenced, and a road network analysis was performed. Measurements and Main Results: Of the 350 healthcare facilities surveyed, 13% had adequate resources to manage severe pneumonia, 37% had pulse oximeters, and 44% had supplemental oxygen. Mean (±SD) travel time to an adequately resourced facility was 41 ± 19 minutes in J-GUA, 99 ± 64 minutes in P-PER, 40 ± 19 minutes in K-RWA, and 31 ± 19 minutes in T-IND. Expanding pulse oximetry coverage to all facilities reduced travel time by 44% in J-GUA, 29% in P-PER, 29% in K-RWA, and 11% in T-IND (all P < 0.001). Conclusions: Most healthcare facilities in low-resource settings of the HAPIN study area were inadequately resourced to care for severe pediatric pneumonia. Early identification of cases and timely referral is paramount. The provision of pulse oximeters to all health facilities may be an effective approach to identify cases earlier and refer them for care and in a timely manner.

Fidelity and Adherence to a Liquefied Petroleum Gas Stove and Fuel Intervention during Gestation: The Multi-Country Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Clean cookstove interventions can theoretically reduce exposure to household air pollution and benefit health, but this requires near-exclusive use of these types of stoves with the simultaneous disuse of traditional stoves. Previous cookstove trials have reported low adoption of new stoves and/or extensive continued traditional stove use. METHODS: The Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial randomized 3195 pregnant women in Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda to either a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stove and fuel intervention (n = 1590) or to a control (n = 1605). The intervention consisted of an LPG stove and two initial cylinders of LPG, free fuel refills delivered to the home, and regular behavioral messaging. We assessed intervention fidelity (delivery of the intervention as intended) and adherence (intervention use) through to the end of gestation, as relevant to the first primary health outcome of the trial: infant birth weight. Fidelity and adherence were evaluated using stove and fuel delivery records, questionnaires, visual observations, and temperature-logging stove use monitors (SUMs). RESULTS: 1585 women received the intervention at a median (interquartile range) of 8.0 (5.0-15.0) days post-randomization and had a gestational age of 17.9 (15.4-20.6) weeks. Over 96% reported cooking exclusively with LPG at two follow-up visits during pregnancy. Less than 4% reported ever running out of LPG. Complete abandonment of traditional stove cooking was observed in over 67% of the intervention households. Of the intervention households, 31.4% removed their traditional stoves upon receipt of the intervention; among those who retained traditional stoves, the majority did not use them: traditional stove use was detected via SUMs on a median (interquartile range) of 0.0% (0.0%, 1.6%) of follow-up days (median follow-up = 134 days). CONCLUSIONS: The fidelity of the HAPIN intervention, as measured by stove installation, timely ongoing fuel deliveries, and behavioral reinforcement as needed, was high. Exclusive use of the intervention during pregnancy was also high.

LPG stove and fuel intervention among pregnant women reduce fine particle air pollution exposures in three countries: Pilot results from the HAPIN trial.

The Household Air Pollution Intervention Network trial is a multi-country study on the effects of a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stove and fuel distribution intervention on women's and children's health. There is limited data on exposure reductions achieved by switching from solid to clean cooking fuels in rural settings across multiple countries. As formative research in 2017, we recruited pregnant women and characterized the impact of the intervention on personal exposures and kitchen levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in Guatemala, India, and Rwanda. Forty pregnant women were enrolled in each site. We measured cooking area concentrations of and personal exposures to PM2.5 for 24 or 48 h using gravimetric-based PM2.5 samplers at baseline and two follow-ups over two months after delivery of an LPG cookstove and free fuel supply. Mixed models were used to estimate PM2.5 reductions. Median kitchen PM2.5 concentrations were 296 µg/m3 at baseline (interquartile range, IQR: 158-507), 24 µg/m3 at first follow-up (IQR: 18-37), and 23 µg/m3 at second follow-up (IQR: 14-37). Median personal exposures to PM2.5 were 134 µg/m3 at baseline (IQR: 71-224), 35 µg/m3 at first follow-up (IQR: 23-51), and 32 µg/m3 at second follow-up (IQR: 23-47). Overall, the LPG intervention was associated with a 92% (95% confidence interval (CI): 90-94%) reduction in kitchen PM2.5 concentrations and a 74% (95% CI: 70-79%) reduction in personal PM2.5 exposures. Results were similar for each site. CONCLUSIONS: The intervention was associated with substantial reductions in kitchen and personal PM2.5 overall and in all sites. Results suggest LPG interventions in these rural settings may lower exposures to the WHO annual interim target-1 of 35 µg/m3. The range of exposure contrasts falls on steep sections of estimated exposure-response curves for birthweight, blood pressure, and acute lower respiratory infections, implying potentially important health benefits when transitioning from solid fuels to LPG.